Data Sources
The availability and consistency of easily accessible data represents a crucial component in building effective ecological performance measures. New efforts focused on data gathering, organization and synthesis should build upon existing work, such as the efforts and products generated by: the California Water Quality Monitoring Council, CAL FIRE’s Forest Practice GIS Program and Watershed Mapper, and FRAO GIS layers, the Department of Fish and Wildlife’s BIOS system, the State and Regional Water Quality Control Boards’ Surface Water Ambient Monitoring Program (SWAMP), and the USDA Forest Service’s Forest Inventory and Analysis program (FIA). The following section will briefly cover potentially useful data sources that can lay the foundation for the development and design of effective EPMs.
State of California SWAMP Bioassessment Program – This program focuses on assessing the health and condition of California water bodies. Biological assessments evaluate the state of a waterbody based on the organisms living within it. This includes surveying the numbers and types of organisms found in a water body, and comparing the results to established benchmarks of biological health (SWAMP, 2016). Through this approach, resident aquatic organisms are used as direct indicators of the biological integrity of water bodies (SWAMP, 2016). The primary biota used in this type of assessment are benthic macroinvertebrate assemblages (BMIs), and benthic algae. This biota is chosen since it is fairly stationary exhibiting a relatively predictable response to a variety of environmental stressors.
Further integrating bisoassesment results with physical and chemical data generates relevant information that is essential for the well-functioning of water resource regulatory programs (SWAMP, 2016). Consequently, a better understanding of the way in which human and natural disturbances interact, and influence biological responses, could lead to a significant improvement in the effectiveness of water quality management programs.
California Environmental Data Exchange Network (CEDEN) - This network, created by the Water Boards with support from SWAMP, aggregates data and information about California’s water bodies (CEDEN, 2016). The data on rivers, streams, lakes and coastal waters are collected from multiple organizations, state and federal agencies, complied, and made easily accessible in a central location – the CEDEN website. Recognizing the need for consistent, up-to-date, reliable water quality information, CEDEN incorporated diverse data sources, and consolidates a platform that offers public access to water quality monitoring data. Environmental managers, researchers, citizen groups, and the general public can easily find, and share information through this integrated framework (CEDEN, 2016). In addition to this, a biennial assessment of water quality for California’s waters is required under Section 303(d) of the Federal Clean Water Act. The Water Boards use the CEDEN database to access water quality information to ensure water quality standards are being met, and beneficial uses are protected. The data collected through CEDEN helps successfully fulfill this task.
Forest Inventory and Analysis National Program (FIA) – This program of the U.S. Forest Service provides the information needed to evaluate the country’s forests in terms of: status and trends related to tree species, size, and stand distribution, forest health, rate of tree growth and mortality. FIA also gathers valuable information with respect to key forest ecosystem processes (changes in forest structure - in terms of soils, and other vegetative community attributes), changes in the size of forested areas, tree harvest trends, wood production, and information related to forest land ownership. There are multiple applications for the data collected through this program. First, the wide range of empirical data is further used in formulating forest policy, and assessing the effectiveness of existing forest management strategies. Second, the data provided by FIA can be used by land managers to evaluate the sustainability of past and present management practices (Forest Inventory and Analysis National Program, 2015). Third, the information gathered serves as a starting point for scientific investigation, and it is particularly useful in addressing questions exploring the dynamic evolution of forest ecosystems over time. The US Forest Service database through the Treesearch portal provides over 47,000 scientific publications (US Forest Service, 2016). Lastly, keeping the general public informed of the health and condition of the Nation’s forests is another important use of the information provided though the FIA program (Forest Inventory and Analysis National Program, 2015).
CAL FIRE’s Forest Practice GIS Program and Watershed Mapper - CAL FIRE's Forest Practice Geographical Information System (GIS) captures current and historic timber harvesting activities for over 4 million acres of California timberland. Silviculture, yarding, new road construction, watercourse classifications, and timberland conversions are tracked through the GIS. Once in the GIS, this information can be graphically represented on maps, or brought into Google Earth. The GIS data are available for land-use planning, analyses of cumulative impacts, and to meet the requirements of the California Forest Practice Rules. Timber harvesting data in ArcMap and Google Earth formats along with geo-referenced THP maps are available for download at ftp://ftp.fire.ca.gov/forest.
The Forest Practice Watershed Mapper is a web-based mapping application that allows users to identify the status of anadromous salmonids in a specific watershed, while also providing data on Forest Districts, and average rainfall, in the context of past and present timber harvesting activities. Access to the Watershed Mapper can be obtained through the following link http://egis.fire.ca.gov/watershed_mapper/.
California Department of Fish and Wildlife - The California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW), formerly known as the California Department of Fish and Game (CDFG), is a state agency under the California Natural Resources Agency that manages, and protects the state's fish, wildlife, and plant species, as well as the habitat on which they depend (California Department of Fish and Wildlife, 2016). Dividing the state into seven regions (which mostly follow county boundaries), CDFW has a broad range of regulatory oversight, including multiple functions such as: enforcing Fish and Game Code, CEQA, CESA environmental regulations, sanctioning poaching, monitoring ecosystem variables, devising habitat conservation strategies, and gathering valuable field data. Consequently, the agency is further partitioned into five divisions including: The Wildlife and Fishery division, the Ecosystem Conservation division, the Law Enforcement division, the Administration division, and the Data and Technology division (California Department of Fish and Wildlife, 2016).
CDFW annually issues several types of habitat restoration grants. All projects funded by these grants require some type of implementation and effectiveness monitoring. The Resource Assessment Program designed by CDFW represents a valuable resource used for data collection, compilation, and dissemination of key information in an organized, and comprehensive manner.
CDFW’s Resource Assessment Program, creates a collaborative tool that provides a systematic framework of data collection, compilation, and dissemination. The Resource Assessment Program Network focuses its efforts on the collection and analysis of data on native fish, wildlife, and plant communities. A web-based interactive tool was created (RAPnet) that facilitates online discussion, database development, and file exchange, streamlining the interactions and collaborations among academics, researchers, and government agency staff (Project Status Summary - Resource Assessment Program).
California Natural Diversity Database (CNDDB) – CNDDB is a national heritage program for rare species and vegetation. Overseen by NatureServe, the program is a biologic repository maintained by the Biogeographic Data Branch of the CDFW (Bittman, 2001). CNDDB represents an inventory of the status, locations, and natural history of rare plants and animals found in California. This program is part of a network of similar programs that collects essential information with the goal of helping conserve the state’s biological diversity (Bittman, 2001). This information is further used by different entities (such as conservation organizations, government agencies, the private sector, and the general public) to advance biodiversity conservation through improved resource management (Bittman, 2001). GIS-based information related to the location of rare species is also provided though a database created and maintained by the CNDDB and its partners (California Department of Fish and Wildlife, 2016).
Vegetation Classification and Mapping Program - The Vegetation Classification and Mapping Program (VegCAMP), founded in 2007, focuses on high-priority conservation and management areas. The program develops products such as fine-scale vegetation mapping and classification of vegetation data. It also designs methodologies for field assessments, including sampling, reporting, analyzing, and mapping vegetation cover (California Department of Fish and Wildlife, 2016). The vegetation datasets provided through BIOS (an interactive interface portal), provide a source of information for conservation managers, scientists, and other natural resources managers. The development of a standardized vegetation classification system for California is seen as a high priority goal, and is one of the main focuses of the VegCAMP program (California Department of Fish and Wildlife, 2016). In addition, the program aims to successfully report, archive, and distribute high quality vegetation data, data which can support regional conservation planning and resource management efforts. VegCAMP also generates essential information by conducting integrated vegetation and habitat assessments in high-priority conservation areas (California Department of Fish and Wildlife, 2016). The array of data generated by the program can be further used to identify individual plant and animal species distributions, recognize important wildlife corridors, and predict the spread of invasive species (California Department of Fish and Wildlife, 2016). Instream Flow Program: The CDFW Instream Flow Program (IFP) focuses on maintaining healthy conditions for aquatic and riparian species by developing instream flow criteria. Instream flows are determined by investigating the relationships between flow and available stream habitat as required by the California Water Action Plan, Public Resources Code (§10000-10005) and FGC §5937 mandates. IFP collects field data, conducts flow studies, develops guidelines for quality assurance, and conducts various outreach activities. Instream flow criteria are transmitted to the State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB) for consideration in water allocation and appropriation actions (California Department of Fish and Wildlife – Instream Flow Program, 2016).
CGS Library Catalog and Digital Archive – The CGS Library Catalog and Digital Archive relays critical information, data and maps pertaining to natural disasters such as earthquakes and landslides. Additionally, trend analysis of past and present geologic conditions, and future projections of seismic activity are easily accessible.
California Rapid Assessment Methodology (CRAM) – CRAM is a standardized ambient assessment used for quantifying, and evaluating the status, and health of California wetlands and streams, and associated riparian areas (San Francisco Estuary Institute, 2016). This cost-effective tool is built to generate multiple scores of wetland condition based on field evaluations of multiple attributes of physical and biologic parameters (San Francisco Estuary Institute, 2016). The overall score for a wetland is calculated in terms of landscape context, hydrology, physical structure and biotic structure, and is determined with respect to the best possible achievable condition of the particular type of environment (CRAM Wetlands). Therefore, a high score represents an overall good ecologic condition. The maximum CRAM score possible represents the best condition that is likely to be achieved by the wetland ecosystem (CRAM Wetlands). In addition, CRAM offers guidelines for identifying stressors that may contribute to poor wetland health (CRAM Wetlands). This tool represents a rapid, and cost-effective method to evaluate current ecosystem conditions, and can be used to assess the effectiveness of restoration and mitigation projects (San Francisco Bay Estuary, 2016). There are different modules of CRAM for different types of wetlands and streams at different spatial scales, ranging from statewide to local watersheds. The data gathered throughout the wetland assessments are made easily accessible through California EcoAtlas. This data portal provides access to information, maps, and tools that can be further used to create a comprehensive understanding of the state’s waterways and aquatic resources
Board of Forestry and Fire Protection - is a government-appointed body within the Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. The Board is responsible for developing the general forest policy of the state, while determining the guidance policies of the Department, and representing the state's interest with respect to the federal forestland in California. The Board has authority delegated by legislature to adopt forest practice and fire protection regulations on non-federal lands. The goal of the Board is to protect, and enhance the state's unique forest and wildland resources, while developing programs that serve the public interest (Board of Forestry and Fire Protection, 2010). The Board also collates and distributes valuable resources such as monitoring reports which synthesize the state of California’s forests and watersheds. For example, the Forest Practice Rules Implementation and Effectiveness Monitoring (FORPRIEM) Program – Monitoring Results from 2008 to 2013 Report documents a detailed assessment on the condition of California’s watersheds. One of the main findings of the report highlights that the rate of compliance with the Forest Practice Rules (FPRs) designed to protect water quality and aquatic habitat is generally high, and that the FPRs are effective in preventing erosion, sedimentation, and sediment transport to channels when properly implemented (Pimlott et al., 2014).
Private Landowners – When analyzing potential data sources that can be used for the design of EPMs, information and knowledge that can be provided by private landowners should be included. For example, the UC Integrated Hardwood Rangeland Management Program (IHRMP) consulted private landowners to identify sources of change in hardwood rangelands (Levien et al., n.d). Some private landowners could represent a valuable source of information due to their site-specific knowledge on past and current conditions, and due to their insight on relevant biologic parameters that illustrate changing environmental conditions. This body of knowledge can be extremely important in identifying environmental conditions and characteristics that otherwise may not be captured. Private landowners may have a system of classification, and a set of empirical observations about their environment that could complement other sources of information used in analyzing the effectiveness of different management strategies.
Universities - Californian universities generate an abundance of high quality information pertaining to the state and condition of California’s ecosystems, and associated biological, physical, and environmental parameters. Some universities collate and organize essential information sources. For example Humboldt State University, though its Library Special Collections provides a comprehensive list of resources for California Environment Information Sources. This research guide list includes twenty resource themes (such as: Forest, Woodlands & Rangelands, Environmental Pollution, Land Use and Ownership, Vegetation, Soils, Water Resources & Water Quality, etc.). Each theme is further subdivided into six sections: 1) guides and bibliographies, 2) general introductions, 3) environmental history, 4) data compilations, 5) reviews and assessments, and 5) maps (Humboldt State University, 2010). In addition, geospatial resources, and data sources are also provided. Through the resources provided by the Humboldt State University Library, a vast array of print and internet sources are made easily accessible. Data links, maps, and brief descriptions on various environmental topics are also available. There are sections pertaining to: the Environmental History of California, Reviews and Assessments, Maps and Atlases, as well as Data Compilations. Other General Introductions (include information about Bioregions of the Pacific Southwest, California Floristic Province, California Rivers Assessment, Ecological Sub regions of California, among others). Yet another example, the UC Davis Forest Biology Research Center of the John Muir Institute of the Environment includes research on the following fields: Genetics, Physiology, Ecology, Pathology / Entomology, and Silviculture (UC Davis Forest Biology Research Center, 2015).
Non-Centralized GIS data – There is no hub for spatial data which may be relevant for ecological performance measures. Still, there are tremendous resources available to the public that may be of use, and we list few data sources that may be of particular importance here. Google Earth, and Google Earth Engine, are free resources, which can be used to locate and view landscapes throughout California. Google Earth allows viewers to scroll through time and preform simple GIS functions such as creating polygons. Google Earth Engine, on the other hand, presents users with a full range of GIS functions, and a deep archive of remotely sensed data. QGIS is another free open source GIS software that can be used to do both simple and complex GIS functions. GIS data is available from most county websites, although the specific type of data and the data quality differs from county to county.